Q1. Discuss the characteristics of tribal movements in India during British control using appropriate instances. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS I à Modern Indian History Model Answer: Introduction: Mizos (1810), Kols (1795 and 1831), Mundas (1889), Daflas (1875), Khasi and Garo (1829), Kacharis (1839), Santhals (1853), Muria Gonds (1886), Nagas (1844 and 1879), Bhuiyas (1868), and Kondhas (1817) were among the prominent tribes involved in insurrection during the colonial period. Body: Tribal groups played a vital and integral role in Indian culture. They had their own social and economic systems before to conquest and subsequent assimilation into British possessions. The tribals’ requirements were met by these systems, which were traditional in character. The tribal society suffered as a result of British policy. This obliterated their economy and communities, which had previously been largely self-sufficient. Tribal groups from several places rose up against the British. Because they were geared against the colonial administration, their movements were anti-colonial. The following points might help you understand the features of tribal movements in India during British rule: There were two sorts of tribal anti-colonial movements: 1. movements against oppressors such as landlords, moneylenders, traders, thekedars (contractors), government officials, and Christian missionaries, and 2. movements affiliated to and integrated with the Indian National movement. The first set of movements can be classified as anti-colonial because they were directed at the classes that were created as a result of British colonialism and who aided the tribals. The tribals regarded these classes as foreigners. Moneylenders and landlords took tribal lands when tribals were unable to repay their loans or the interest on them. As a result, the tribals became tenants on their own land, and in certain cases, bound labourers. They were never helped by the police or revenue officers. Not only were the judges oblivious of the tribal agrarian system and customs, but they were also unaware of the tribals’ misery. Many tribes such as the Munda, Santhals, Kol, Bhils, Warli, and others in Assam, Orissa, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra revolted as a result of land alienation, usurpation, forced labour, minimum pay, and land grabbing. In their respective regions, they began movements against their oppressors. Their anti-colonial protests could be classified as anti-colonial. Outsiders (dikus) — landlords, moneylenders, thekedars and missionaries, as well as European government officials – were designated as their foes by Birsa Munda, who promised his people a golden period after removing the outsiders from their country. Overall, these movements had social and religious overtones, but they were motivated by difficulties around their own existence. For example, Jatra Bhagat founded the Jatra Bhagat and Tana Bhagat Movement in 1914. It was a movement promoting monotheism, vegetarianism, abstinence from meat and alcohol, and tribal dance. Anti-colonialism and domestic reforms were emphasised by the Jatra Bhagat and Tana Bhagat movements. Forest management has also sparked rebellion among some tribes, as forests are the primary source of income in some areas. The laws not only denied tribals access to a variety of forest resources, but they also subjected them to persecution by forest officials. This prompted tribes in Andhra Pradesh and other states to organise. For instance, the Rampa revolt led by Alluri Sitaramaraju. These ‘movements’ began under the direction of their respective leaders. Although the movements originated on social and religious problems, as well as against outsider oppression, they eventually amalgamated with the National movement and the anti-tax campaign. The tribals used traditional weaponry such as bows, arrows, lathis, and axes to fight their opponents. Their campaign frequently devolved into violence, leading in the assassination of oppressors and the torching of their homes. For instance, consider the Ramoshi insurrection in the Bombay suburbs. The government brutally suppressed the majority of the movements. The tribals were forced to follow British policies that were harmful to their interests. However, in response to these setbacks, the government implemented protective administration in tribal areas. The government passed the I Scheduled District Act (1874) and the Govt. of India Act of 1935, which classified tribal territories as excluded areas. Conclusion: During the colonial period, tribals were among the exploited social groups. Tribal movements in India were confined to a few places as a result of the conquest and later assimilation of tribal areas into British territories, but they were still part of the greater national struggle against colonial powers. Q2. Examine Bengal’s role in India’s independence struggle. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS I à Modern Indian History Model Answer: Introduction: Bengal, or West Bengal, is well-known for its significant contribution to the Indian Independence Movement. Bengal became a hotbed of the Indian independence movement and the epicentre of the Bengali Renaissance in the early twentieth century. Following the Swadeshi Movement in the first decade of the twentieth century, revolutionary nationalism developed as a powerful political movement in Bengal. The Swadeshi Movement was born out of Bengal’s fury over the division of the province of Bengal in 1905. Body: Bengal’s contributions to India’s freedom struggle: The Sanyasi revolt in Bengal lasted from 1763 to 1800. It was essentially a peasant insurrection that began in Dhaka (now Bangladesh’s capital) and stretched all the way to Bihar, with up to 50,000 rebels. The Indigo uprising was mostly nonviolent, and it served as a forerunner to Gandhiji’s later nonviolent satyagraha. The dramatisation of the revolution in the play Nil Darpan, as well as numerous other works of prose and poetry, made the revolt extremely popular. As a result, the revolt became a focal point in Bengal’s political consciousness, influencing many subsequent movements in the Indian liberation struggle. By equating the Motherland with the Mother-Goddess, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee elevated nationalism to the level of religion. He authored the poem ‘Vande Mataram’ in Anandamath. To introduce social and educational reforms to women, the Bengal Renaissance established many journal houses and collaborated with various newspapers and journalistic publications such as Tattwabadhini Patrika, samprakash, sarbashubhankarr Patrika, and Hindu patriot. The Indian national movement gained a stronger social basis as a result

Q1. What are the Constitutional Provisions related to Education. (250 Words) Paper & Topic: GS I à Polity Model Answer: Within ten years of the Constitution’s commencement, everyone must receive a free, compulsory education up to the age of 14 in accordance with Directive Principles of State Policy Article 45. Because it was never put into effect, Article 21A was added in its place by the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2002. Basic education was elevated from a guiding principle to a fundamental right as a result. Children under the age of six are now covered by the Article 45 early childhood care and education regulations. Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act of 2009: In order to implement Article 21A, the parliament passed the Right to Education Act. This Act provided Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan with the legitimacy it need to become operational (SSA). Within a certain time frame, the government programme known as SSA seeks to universalize elementary education. It was put to use in 2000 or 2001. Provisions: All Indian children between the ages of six and fourteen have a right to free and required education. When the government uses the word “compulsory,” it signifies that admission, attendance, and completion are all requirements as well as that all Indian children must receive free basic education. Unadmitted children must be permitted to enrol in age-appropriate classes. The Act mandates that public schools be governed by School Management Committees and provide all students with free education (SMCs). At least 25% of the children enrolled in private schools must receive free education. For the socially and economically disadvantaged groups, such as the SC and STs, the Socially Backward Class, and the differently-abled, this Act mandates a 25% reserve. The PTRs, facilities, infrastructure, school days, teaching hours, teacher certificates, and teacher training are just a few of the conditions that this Act specifies. Due to the wise teacher deployment, there is no disparity in the populations of the urban and rural areas. With the exception of responsibilities like the yearly census, elections, and disaster aid, it prohibits using instructors for purposes other than instruction. Physical and verbal abuse, student admission screening procedures, capitation fees, teacher-provided private instruction, and the operation of unrecognised schools are all illegal. According to this Act, the Centre and state governments should share financial and other duties. It aims to free the child from fear, trauma, and anxiety through a system of kid-friendly and kid-centered learning. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (Amendment) Act, 2019, eliminated the “No Detention Policy” clause. Q2. How Education has grown in India from Vedic Period to Post Independence Period? Throw light on it. (250 Words) Paper & Topic: GS I à Polity Model Answer: The Gurukula educational system was previously used in India. In this system, the teacher would teach students at his home on a range of subjects, such as Sanskrit, the Bible, mathematics, metaphysics, etc. The pupil stays at the teacher’s house for as long as he wants or until the guru deems he has finished all of his material, whichever comes first. Unlike modern education, which places a strong emphasis on memorization, education in the Gurukula was deeply rooted in nature and everyday life. In the 1830s, Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay brought the modern educational system and the English language to India. Science, math, and other “modern” subjects made up the majority of the curriculum, while metaphysics and philosophy were viewed as unnecessary extras. The connection to nature was disrupted by the close relationship between the teacher and students as well as by the limitation of instruction inside classrooms. The Uttar Pradesh Board of High School and Intermediate Education was the first board to be established in India. Later, more boards were established in several states. This kind of educational system underwent modifications following the dissolution of the British Empire. How has the educational system in India changed since it gained independence? The Indian educational system has the following levels of education: Age range for pre-primary level: 5–6 years 6 to 14 years old is the main (elementary) level age range. Article 21A of the Indian Constitution provides protection for it. The Sarva Shikha Abhiyan works to increase everyone’s access to primary education. Secondary school age range: 14 to 18. The SSA programme was extended to secondary school by the government under the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan. In India, the three levels of higher education are commonly MPhil/Ph.D., PG, and UG. A centrally supported programme called Rashtriya Uchhattar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) provides strategic funding to universities all over the country.

Q1. What are the factors influencing South West Monsoon Formation. (250 Words) Paper & Topic: GS I à Geography Model Answer: The South West Monsoon Season lasts from June to the middle of September. The South West Monsoon Season is also known as the hot-wet season. The South West Monsoons’ sudden start is its key feature. When monsoon season begins, the temperature quickly drops and the humidity rises. South West Monsoon Season Temperature: The sudden entrance of the South West Monsoons results in a sharp decrease in temperature [3° to 6°C]. The weather fluctuates more during the wet season. The south-west monsoon season ends in September, and temperatures rise. The temperature rises when the monsoons are disrupted. The diurnal temperature range is quite small because of clouds and rain. West of the Aravali are the locations with the highest temperatures (38 to 40 °C). This is due to a lack of clouds and warm continental air masses. Several areas of northwest India see temperatures that approach 30 °C. The Western Ghats receive a lot of rain, which contributes to their relatively low temperatures. The coastal regions of Tamil Nadu and the neighbouring state of Andhra Pradesh see temperatures above 30°C since they receive little rain at this time of year. Factors Affecting the South-West Monsoon’s Formation: Differential Heating and Cooling of Land and Water:  Due to the differential heating and cooling of land and water, India’s landmass has low pressure while the waters that surround it have relatively high pressure. The formation of the South-West Monsoon is significantly impacted by this. The monsoon winds are as a result blowing the other way. InterTropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) Throughout the summer, the ITCZ moves to the north, bringing monsoon rains to Kozhikode, India. In the Southern Hemisphere’s summer, the ITCZ swings south, bringing monsoon rains to Darwin, Australia. The fact that land cannot store heat as well as the ocean does has an impact on where the monsoon rains occur. Existence of High-Pressure Areas: the presence of a high-pressure area over the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar, at or near 20°S. The Indian Monsoon is affected by the size, location, and power of this high-pressure area. The summertime heat of the Tibetan plateau results in strong vertical air currents and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at a height of about 9 km above sea level. Tropical Easterly Jet Stream: Tropical depressions are directed toward India by the easterly jet stream. The monsoon rains’ distribution across the Indian subcontinent is influenced by these depressions. India receives the maximum rainfall along these depressions’ pathways. Southern Oscillation, or SO: The Southern Oscillation (SO) occurs when the tropical eastern south Pacific ocean gets high pressure and the tropical eastern Indian ocean experiences low pressure. However, every few years there is a pressure reversal when the eastern Pacific has lower pressure than the eastern Indian Ocean. The SO is a term used to describe a recurring change in pressure circumstances. While those conditions vary, the Indian Ocean remains far colder, yet summertime temperatures in certain parts of India can exceed 45 degrees Celsius. In other cases, the aforementioned factors also contribute to lower monsoons and even droughts. Climate Change: The ability of the atmosphere to hold more water vapour as a result of global warming affects the behaviour of our monsoon. According to recent study, global warming would probably result in a wetter and riskier monsoon season in India. According to scientists, climate change has been causing long-term disruptions to the monsoon season. As a result of greenhouse gas-induced global warming, previous studies have indicated that there will be more rain during the summer monsoon season as well as unpredictable, heavy rainfall events. The Importance of the Southwest Monsoon Season: Approximately half of India’s agricultural land is irrigated by the southwest monsoon. Around 70% of India’s yearly rainfall falls during the monsoon season, which has an impact on the yield of several significant kharif or summer crops like rice, pulses, and oilseeds like soybeans. Cotton, maize, paddy, soybean, peanut, bajra, and sesame are a few of the important crops that are dependent on monsoon rains. For the purpose of feeding and caring for their cows, Indian dairy farms rely on the Southwest Monsoon. Conclusion: The Southwest Monsoon moves slowly southward from the distant northwest beginning in early September. However, the monsoon winds’ torrential rains can cause severe floods in India’s northern plains, which can lead to the destruction of property and the loss of lives. They are renowned for being erratic. Droughts are likely to occur in one area of the country while catastrophic floods and droughts are caused by dry and wet spells in another. Q2. What is Inter Tropical Convergence Zone & enumerate its importance. (250 Words) Paper & Topic: GS I à Geography Model Answer: What is Inter Tropical Convergence Zone: Southeast trade winds from the southern hemisphere and northeast trade winds from the northern hemisphere meet up close to the equator. These winds congregate in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Rising air, the greatest number of clouds, and heavy rainfall are all present here. The ITCZ’s position shifts both north and south of the equator with the change of the seasons. In the summer, the ITCZ advances north and receives vertical sunlight at the Tropic of Cancer. The southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator and start to blow in a southwest to northeast direction due to the effect of Coriolis force. These displaced trade winds are referred to as south-west monsoons when they move across the Indian subcontinent. The Monsoon Front is the region where the South-West Monsoons and the North-East Trade Winds converge (ITCZ). Rain falls along this front. The south-west monsoon, which has its origins in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, falls on the Indo-Gangetic Plain, where the ITCZ switches to in July. The ITCZ is frequently referred to as the Monsoon Trough while it is in this position (highest

Q1. What is quantum supremacy, and how does it work? Why was it lately in the news? What are the potential applications of such a technological breakthrough? Examine. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS III à Science and Technology related topics Model Answer: Introduction: Quantum supremacy refers to a device’s ability to solve issues that traditional computers can’t. When compared to the fastest supercomputers available, it is the ability to complete complex computations in a relatively short amount of time. John Preskill, a theoretical physicist at Caltech, created this expression in 2012 to characterise the point at which quantum computers can perform things that classical computers can’t. Body: Google just stated that it has achieved quantum supremacy. Quantum computers are based on the quantum mechanics premise. Google stated that their sycamore quantum computer tackled extremely difficult issues in 200 seconds. Quantum computing’s potential applications include: Medical care: Research: The size and complexity of molecules that can be simulated and compared by traditional computers is limited (an essential process in early drug development). The number of possible interactions between these atoms is exponential if we have an input of size N, where N is the number of atoms in the investigated molecules (each atom can interact with all the others). Larger molecules will be simulated using quantum computers. Simultaneously, researchers will be able to study and simulate drug interactions with all 20,000+ proteins encoded in the human genome, resulting in higher pharmacological advances. Quantum technologies could be employed in a range of applications to give faster, more accurate diagnostics. Machine learning, which is currently being used to enhance pattern detection, will benefit from increased AI capabilities. High-resolution MRI equipment will provide more detail and will assist clinicians in illness screening. Treatment: Targeted treatments, such as radiotherapy, rely on the ability to quickly model and simulate complex scenarios in order to provide the best treatment possible. Using quantum computers, therapists would be able to conduct more simulations in less time, reducing radiation harm to healthy tissue. Funding: Algorithmic trading – the use of complex algorithms to automatically trigger share dealings depending on a wide variety of market variables – is one potential application for quantum technologies. The benefits are enormous, especially for high-volume transactions. Pattern recognition is used in fraud detection, just as it is in diagnostics in healthcare. Quantum computers have the potential to greatly increase machine learning capabilities, lowering the time it takes to train a neural network and increasing the detection rate. Promotion: Quantum computers will be able to collect and analyse massive amounts of consumer data from many sources. Big data analytics will enable businesses and governments to accurately target individual consumers and voters with messaging tailored to their interests, influencing consumer spending and election outcomes. The science of weather: Accurate weather forecasts are difficult to generate because there are so many variables to consider. The use of quantum computers for machine learning will increase pattern recognition, making it easier to predict extreme weather events and potentially save thousands of lives each year. Climate scientists will also be able to create and analyse more complex climate models, giving them a better understanding of climate change and how to reduce its harmful effects. Transportation and logistics: A wide range of sectors will be able to optimise workflows linked with transportation, logistics, and supply-chain management thanks to improved data analysis and modelling. Traffic management, fleet operations, air traffic control, freight and distribution could all benefit from the computation and recalculation of optimal routes. Disaster Preparedness: With quantum applications, tsunamis, droughts, earthquakes, and floods may become more foreseeable. Quantum technology can help to simplify the collection of data on climate change. This, in turn, will have a significant impact on agriculture, food technology chains, and farmland waste reduction. Communication that is secure: Secure quantum communication lines between terrestrial stations and satellites were recently demonstrated by China. Satellites, the military, and cyber security are all interested in this sector because it promises users impossibly rapid computers and secure, unhackable satellite communication. The Indian scenario with quantum computing: Globally, study in this field has been going on for roughly two decades, but real experimental work in India has only been going on for around five years. In 2018, the government began serious discussions on quantum technology and launched 51 research projects under the QUEST (Quantum Enabled Science and Technology) initiative. However, until the NMQTA, no meaningful progress is done in this field. The newly formed National Mission on Quantum Technologies and Applications has been allocated 8,000 crore ($ 1.2 billion) in the Union Budget 2020-21. (NMQTA). The mission aims to create quantum computing-related technologies in the midst of the second quantum revolution, with the goal of making India the world’s third largest quantum computing nation after the United States and China. Conclusion: Quantum computing has the ability to overcome the current restrictions imposed by regular computer power, resulting in advancements in agriculture, biotechnology, finance, healthcare, and cyber security, among other fields. This will aid the globe in overcoming current difficulties like as food insecurity, climate change cybercrime, a lack of new antibiotics to combat superbugs, as well as money laundering and terror financing. Although still in its early stages, quantum supremacy has huge future promise for humanity. Q2. In recent years, the field of digital payments has seen enormous technological changes. Examine why a country like India needs a digital payment system as a substitute to traditional paper currency. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS III à Science and Technology related topics Model Answer: Introduction: A digital payment is an online or digital transaction that does not include a physical exchange of money. This means that both the payer and the payee exchange money via electronic means. Since demonetisation in 2016, the Indian government has been aggressively supporting and advertising internet payments. Many economic and financial decisions prompted Indians to move to online payments were guided by the concept of ‘Digital India.’ By 2023, 66.6 billion transactions totaling $270.7 billion in India

Q1. Following the third Carnatic War, the English ruled India with a vengeance, having defeated all of their European adversaries. Examine the causes for the English triumph. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS I à Indian Culture Model Answer: Introduction: The Anglo-French conflict in India lasted over 20 years, culminating with the establishment of British power in India. The Anglo-French rivalry was quite visible in the Carnatic region and Bengal. Alivardi Khan’s effective involvement in Bengal had successfully subdued their resentment. However, the French position in the south was strengthened by the arrival of a fleet from Mauritius, which resulted in a French attack on the English position in Madras. Body: When Austria attempted to reclaim Silesia in 1756, the Seven Years War (1756-63) erupted in Europe. Once again, the United Kingdom and France were on opposing sides. In India, the War’s Progress: The English forts of St. David and Vizianagaram were conquered by the French army under the command of Count Thomas Arthur de Lally in 1758. The English went on the offensive now, and the French fleet led by Admiral D’Acheat Masulipatnam suffered terrible losses. Wandiwash’s Battle: On January 22, 1760, the English won the final battle of the Third Carnatic War at Wandiwash (or Vandavasi) in Tamil Nadu. The English army of General Eyre Coote routed the French army of Count de Lally and captured Marquis de Bussy. Lally bravely fought Pondicherry for eight months before surrendering on January 16, 1761. The French dominance in India was brought to its nadir with the fall of Pondicherry, Gingee, and Mahe. Lally returned to France after being taken as a prisoner of war in London, where he was imprisoned and executed in 1766. The Importance of the Result: The Third Carnatic War was a decisive victory. The Treaty of Paris (1763) brought an end to the third war, allowing Pondicherry and Chandannagar to be ceded to France but solely for commerce purposes. Despite the fact that the treaty restored the French factories in India, French political power in India faded after the war. Following that, the French in India, like their Portuguese and Dutch counterparts, restricted themselves to small enclaves and commerce. In the Indian subcontinent, the English became the ultimate European power. The Reasons for English Success and French Failure: Governmental Control Over British: The English Company was a private company with little government involvement. People become more enthusiastic and self-assured as a result of this. With less government oversight, this corporation could make quick decisions without having to wait for clearance from the government. The French firm, on the other hand, was a government-owned enterprise. The French government controlled and regulated it, and it was hemmed in by government policies and decision-making delays. Superior British Navy and Control of Larger Cities: The English fleet was superior to the French navy, and it assisted in cutting off the important maritime route between French territories in India and France. The English controlled three significant cities: Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, while the French only controlled Pondicherry. The British had a strong financial position, whereas the French prioritized geographical ambition over business interests, leaving the French enterprise cash-strapped. Regardless of their imperialistic motivations, the British never failed to consider their business interests. The British have always had sufficient funds and, as a result, a good financial position to aid them greatly in conflicts against their adversaries. Superior British Commanders: The supremacy of the British commanders in India was a crucial factor in the English victory. On the French side, there was only Dupleix, compared to the vast list of leaders on the English side – Sir Eyre Coote, Major Stringer Lawrence, Robert Clive, and many others. Conclusion: The English East India Company had no European adversary in India after the victory at Wandiwash. As a result, they were prepared to take control of the entire country. Native Americans served as sepoys in both armies at the Battle of Wandiwash. It leads one to believe that the fall of India to European invaders was inevitable, regardless of which side prevailed. Q2. There was a complex power struggle between diverse groups of powers in the eighteenth century. There was a fight for political supremacy not only between the colonial power and the Indian states, but also among the Indian powers themselves. Discuss. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS I à Indian Culture Model Answer: Introduction: With Aurangzeb’s mistaken policies weakening the stable Mughal polity and the failure of other Mughals like Muhammad Shah’s leadership from 1719 to 1748, the Mughal Empire was altered by the rise of a number of independent kingdoms during the first half of the eighteenth century. By 1773, the East India Corporation had gained geographical control over Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madras, and Bombay, having begun as a trade company. Their dependents were the Nawabs of Awadh and Carnatic. Body: The following are the three sorts of states that have emerged as a result of the establishment of a large number of independent and semi-independent or autonomous nations: Hyderabad, Bengal, and Awadh were the three cases in which Mughal provincial governors established independent states. The ‘new states’ or ‘insurgent states’ established by rebels against the Mughals—the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Afghans—were the second group of regional states. This group includes sovereign states like as Mysore, the Rajput states, and Kerala. They faced heavy opposition from the Marathas, Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan of Mysore, and the Sikhs after 1765. To be supreme in India, the East India Company had to subjugate these powers. The conflict between colonial powers and Indian states: Conflict between the English and the Bengali Nawabs The victory of Robert Clive over Siraj-ud-daula at the Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757) set the territorial foundations for British dominance in India. Clive’s victory at Buxar (1764) over the united troops of the Nawab of Bengal, Nawab of Awadh, and the Mughal Emperor created the true foundations of English authority. Mysore’s British Conquest: First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69); Madras

Q1. India’s space endeavours have been halted due to the Covid-19 epidemic; nonetheless, India must remain competitive in order to deliver effective services to its clientele. Comment. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS III à Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights. Model Answer: Introduction: India’s space endeavours have been halted due of the Covid-19 epidemic. ISRO’s space launch activities have come to a halt, despite major reforms in the space sector implemented in 2019 and 2020. Chandrayaan-3 and Gaganyaan are two important projects that have been hampered by the coronavirus pandemic. The third expedition to the Moon, Chandrayaan-3, is set to launch later this year. To mitigate risks and interruptions, ISRO should prioritise pursuing pre-launch automation with more fervour. Body: The current state of the Indian space industry is as follows: India’s worldwide percentage of total space launches, at 1.8 percent, remains modest. Between the first and second waves of COVID-19 in India, the three launches from the Sriharikota Range took place between November 2020 and February 2021. The satellite customer base that India’s economically successful PSLV enjoyed for 20 years is diminishing dramatically as a result of the new competition. It will take time for new start-ups to establish themselves. The first demonstrations from India’s space-launch start-ups, Agnikul Cosmos and Skyroot Aerospace, which recently raised $11 million in Series A funding each, are still a few quarters away, as is the first space launch from ISRO’s Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV), which is marketed by the state-owned New Space India Limited (NSIL). Situation in the space sector around the world. Other launch vehicle developers, such as SpaceX, United Launch Alliance, China’s Long March, ExPace, and OneSpace, and New Zealand’s Rocket Lab, have continued to test and provide launch services despite the pandemic. Why Private enterprises founded during the epidemic must have unrestricted access to space testing facilities in order to produce vehicles quickly: ISRO must obtain SSLV space-proven credentials as soon as possible in order to fit the GSLV MK-III for Gaganyaan, its human spaceflight mission. Reusable space plane testing and on-field evaluation for orbital and sub-orbital flights must be hastened. ISRO’s hypersonic space plane, the reusable launch vehicle (RLV-TD), has been awaiting tests since 2016. More launch vehicles are in experimental and operational phases in India than ever before. It calls for a national policy on commercial space transportation in the sub-orbital, orbital, and interplanetary realms. This requires the Director General of Civil Aviation (DGCA), like the Federal Aviation Administration in the United States, to broaden its scope to include commercial space transportation. A collaborative DoS-DGCA national policy, similar to NASA-FAA synergies, can enable India’s space launch centres and spaceports become more market-oriented and equipped for commercial, military, civilian, and experimental space launches. In this method, space launch service providers and space launch technology businesses can collaborate. India’s Next Steps: Despite the pandemic, ISRO will have to choose less labor-intensive projects to undertake. In the following weeks and months, ISRO will have to identify missions and change its strategy to pursue less demanding missions in order to avoid delays and rescheduling, which is currently unknown. Even without COVID-19, ISRO was on a path to enhance mission complexity and numbers, which only emphasises the importance of developing and integrating automation technology to reduce, if not completely eliminate, human labour and intervention at its ground launch sites. Unlike India, the United States has a private sector that can meet the criteria of some launch missions even if there is a health emergency, reducing the pressure on a government-run space programme. Conclusion: Given the foregoing, it should now become a priority for ISRO to pursue pre-launch automation with more vigour in order to mitigate risks and disruptions. Although limited pre-launch automation exists and is utilised by space organisations all around the world, including the ISRO, it is not widely developed and employed. There would be substantially less incentive to move quickly on technology investments if there were no pandemic as infectious as the current one. COVID-19, on the other hand, may and should encourage more zealous pursuit of opportunities and investment in the AI subfields of Machine Learning (ML) and robotics. Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights. Q2. What are the goals of the Deep Ocean Mission in terms of realising India’s vision of harnessing the Blue Economy for long-term growth? Explain. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS III à Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights. Model Answer: Introduction: The Deep Ocean Mission will be a mission-mode project that will support the Indian government’s blue economy objectives. The Deep Ocean Mission is proposed as a multi-ministerial, multi-disciplinary programme with a focus on deep sea technology development, deep sea mineral exploration, and deep sea biodiversity exploration, as well as the acquisition of a research vessel for exploration, deep sea observations, and capacity building. The Ministry of Earth Sciences’ Deep Ocean Mission was recently approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs, with the goal of exploring the deep ocean for resources and developing deep sea technology for long-term utilisation of ocean resources. Body: The following are the key goals proposed by the Deep Ocean Mission: Deep sea mining, underwater vehicles, and underwater robotics technologies Ocean climate change advisory services Technological innovations for deep sea biodiversity exploration and conservation Deep ocean survey and exploration Proof of concept studies on energy and freshwater from the ocean; and Establishing a cutting-edge marine biology station The Deep Ocean Mission’s vision for harnessing the Blue Economy: A manned submersible with a set of scientific sensors and tools will be constructed to carry three persons to a depth of 6,000 metres in the ocean. For mining polymetallic nodules at those depths in the central Indian Ocean, an Integrated Mining System will be created. Mineral exploration investigations will prepare the way for commercial exploitation in the foreseeable future, as and when

Q1. In the recent year, Bitcoin’s validity and mainstreaming have improved Explain how Bitcoins and other cryptocurrencies work in this context. Why do governments and central banks view them with suspicion? Explain. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS III à Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life; Achievements of Indians in science &   technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology. Model Answer: Introduction: Individual coin ownership records are recorded in a ledger that exists in the form of a computerised database, making cryptocurrencies a digital asset designed to act as a medium of trade. To secure transaction records, control the creation of extra coins, and verify the transfer of coin ownership, it employs powerful cryptography. It is not normally issued by a central authority and does not exist in physical form (like paper money). In contrast to centralised digital money and central banking institutions, cryptocurrencies often use decentralised control. Body: The Importance of Cryptocurrencies: Check for Corruption: Because blocks are distributed over a peer-to-peer network, they aid in the prevention of corruption by tracing the movement of funds and transactions. Time Effective: Cryptocurrencies can help remitters and receivers save money and time because they are performed wholly via the Internet, run on a mechanism with very low transaction fees, and are nearly instantaneous. Cost-effective: Intermediaries such as banks, credit card companies, and payment gateways charge fees that amount to over 3% of the total world economic output of more than $100 trillion. 4 Incorporating blockchain into these industries might save hundreds of billions of dollars. Issues with Cryptocurrencies: Consumer protection: Cryptocurrencies pose a threat to consumers. They are not legal tender since they lack a governmental guarantee. Market volatility: Because of their speculative character, they are extremely volatile. Bitcoin, for example, has dropped in value from USD 20,000 in December 2017 to USD 3,800 in November 2018. 3 Security risk: If a user’s private key is lost, they lose access to their cryptocurrency (unlike traditional digital banking accounts, this password cannot be reset). Malware threats: In some circumstances, technical service providers (cryptocurrency exchanges or wallets) store these private keys, which are vulnerable to malware or hacking. Money laundering: Cryptocurrencies are more susceptible to money laundering and criminal activity. Because the public keys involved in a transaction cannot be directly connected to an individual, they enable better anonymity than traditional payment systems. Regulatory bypass: The supply of cryptocurrencies in the economy cannot be regulated by a central bank. If they become widely used, this might put the country’s financial stability at danger. Power consumption: Because authenticating transactions consumes a lot of energy, it could jeopardise the country’s energy security (the total electricity use of bitcoin mining, in 2018, was equivalent to that of mid-sized economies such as Switzerland). India’s Stand on Cryptocurrencies: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) issued a circular in 2018 prohibiting all banks from dealing in cryptocurrencies. In May 2020, the Supreme Court ruled that the circular was illegal. The government recently declared that it will introduce the Cryptocurrency and Regulation of Official Digital Currency Bill, 2021, to establish a sovereign digital currency while simultaneously prohibiting the use of private cryptocurrencies. In India, monies invested in blockchain start-ups represent for less than 0.2 percent of the total amount raised by the industry internationally. Because of the present stance on cryptocurrencies, it is nearly hard for blockchain entrepreneurs and investors to make a profit. Issues with the Prohibition of Decentralized Cryptocurrencies: Blanket Ban: The Cryptocurrency and Regulation of Official Digital Currency Bill, 2021, is based on a blanket ban. It aims to make all private cryptocurrencies illegal in India. However, categorising cryptocurrencies as public (supported by the government) or private (owned by an individual) is incorrect because they are decentralised but not private. Decentralized cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin aren’t, or rather, can’t, be controlled by any private or public institution. Brain-Drain: A ban on cryptocurrencies is likely to result in a talent and business exodus from India, similar to what happened after the RBI banned cryptocurrencies in 2018. At the time, blockchain professionals relocated to nations that controlled cryptocurrency, such as Switzerland, Singapore, Estonia, and the United States. Blockchain innovation, which has applications in governance, data economy, and energy, will grind to a halt in India as a result of the blanket ban. Prohibition on Transformative Technology: A ban would deprive India, its entrepreneurs, and residents of a transformative technology that is rapidly gaining traction around the world, including by some of the world’s greatest corporations like Tesla and MasterCard. A Wasted Effort: Banning rather than regulating will just create a parallel market, increasing illegal use and contradicting the ban’s objective. A ban is impractical because anyone may buy cryptocurrencies on the internet. Inconsistent Policies: Banning cryptocurrencies contradicts the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology’s (MeitY) Draft National Strategy on Blockchain, 2021, which hails blockchain technology as a transparent, secure, and efficient technology that adds a layer of trust to the internet. Next Steps: The Solution Is Regulation: Regulation is required to avoid significant issues, guarantee that cryptocurrencies are not mishandled, and safeguard naive investors from market instability and potential scams. The regulation must be clear, transparent, cogent, and guided by a vision of what it aspires to accomplish. Clarity on crypto-currency definition: A legal and regulatory framework must first classify crypto-currencies as securities or other financial instruments under applicable national laws, as well as name the responsible regulatory authority. Strict KYC Norms: Rather than outright banning cryptocurrencies, the government should control their trading by imposing strict KYC, reporting, and taxation requirements. Ensuring Transparency: To address concerns about transparency, information availability, and consumer protection, record keeping, inspections, independent audits, investor grievance redress, and dispute settlement may be considered. Reigniting the Entrepreneurial Wave: Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain technology have the potential to rekindle the entrepreneurial wave in India’s startup ecosystem, resulting in job opportunities for everyone from blockchain developers to designers, project managers, business analysts, promoters, and marketers. Conclusion: India is on the

Q1. The salinity of ocean water is influenced by a number of ecological and geographic factors. Explain. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS I à Physical Geography Model Answer: Introduction: Salinity is the term used to describe the total amount of dissolved salts in seawater. It is calculated as the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm, or one kilogramme, of seawater. Ocean water normally has a salinity of 35 parts per thousand at 0 degrees Celsius. This means that 3.5 percent of the weight of ocean water is made up of dissolved salts. Sodium chloride, also referred to as common salt, is the most common dissolved salt in the ocean. Body: Salinity is influenced by the following variables: Numerous factors that impact the salt content of different seas and oceans control oceanic salinity. Evaporation, precipitation, river water inflow, dominating winds, ocean currents, and sea waves are important regulating factors. Fluctuations in salinity: High salinity areas are those with horizontal fluctuation The Red Sea is a landlocked body of water with a high salinity. In hot, arid regions with heavy evaporation, salinity levels are quite high. Estuaries and the Arctic have seasonal variations in salinity (fresh water coming from ice caps) The main factors influencing the salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean are its shape and size. Close to the equator, one can find heavy precipitation, high relative humidity, cloudiness, and the calm doldrums air. The polar regions receive a substantial quantity of fresh water from ice melting, with very little evaporation. As a result, salt levels are low. Between 20° and 30° N and 20° to 60° W, the highest salinity is found. As you move north, it steadily decreases. The Bay of Bengal is trending toward low salinity because of the Ganga River’s intake of river water. The Arabian Sea, on the other hand, has a higher salinity due to significant evaporation and limited freshwater influx. Oceanic waters: The North Atlantic Drift brings in more salty water, which is why the North Sea has a higher salinity despite being at higher latitudes. The Baltic Sea has a low salinity because to the large input of river waters. The Mediterranean Sea has higher salinity levels as a result of considerable evaporation. But due to the large inflow of fresh water from rivers, the Black Sea has a very low salinity level. inland waterways and lakes Their salinity is quite high as a result of the regular input of salt from rivers into inland seas and lakes. Their water eventually gets saltier as a result of evaporation. For instance, the salinities of the Dead Sea, Lake Van in Turkey, and the Great Salt Lake are all very high. The salinity decreases in the western parts of the northern hemisphere as a result of the entry of melted water from the Arctic region. Below-surface salinity: Salinity also changes with depth, but this variation is once again controlled by latitudinal variations. The drop is also impacted by warm and cold currents. In high latitudes, salinity increases with depth. In the middle latitudes, it climbs up to 35 metres before falling. At the equator, surface salinity is lower. Vertical salinity distribution: Salinity varies with depth, but the location of the sea affects how it varies. For instance, freshwater intake from rivers can cause salinity at the surface to decrease while rising due to water loss to ice or evaporation. The salinity at depth is essentially constant because salt cannot be “added” or “removed.” Salinity varies significantly between the surface and deep ocean zones. Higher salinity water is perched on top of lesser salinity water. In contrast to the thermocline, where salinity normally rises with depth, the halocline is a location where salinity rises sharply. While other factors remain constant, seawater becomes denser as its salinity increases. Usually, saltier seawater rises above water and is followed by less salty seawater. This leads to stratification of salinity. Impact: Salinity has an impact on a variety of physical properties, including compressibility, thermal expansion, temperature, density, and absorption of solar radiation. The composition and motion of the sea are also influenced by water and the distribution of fish and other marine resources. Salinity affects seawater density, which affects ocean circulation and climate. Some currents actually vary their direction seasonally due to the interaction between temperature, salinity, and density. One location where this occurs is the Indian Ocean. Ocean salinity is intimately tied to land weather since it is correlated with the movement of currents. The kinds of organisms that live there can be significantly influenced by the salinity of a body of water. The water cycle and ocean circulation are both significantly impacted by salinity. Due to increases in ocean salinity during the past 50 years, the water cycle has now intensified by 4%, which is twice as fast as predicted by models. The planet’s temperature is kept in balance by the steady salinity levels of the oceans. Conclusion: Each year, the land supplies three billion tonnes of salt to the oceans. Only a tiny fraction of this salt is removed by people for daily use. Q2. Though its application is ludicrous in practise, the Special Marriage Act of 1954 represents the first step toward a unified civil code in theory. Critically evaluate. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS II à Government Policies and Interventions Model Answer: Introduction: The Allahabad high court recently issued an order regarding a habeas corpus writ petition in which it stated that it is disturbing that someone should change their religion solely for the purpose of marriage when two people professing different religions can marry under the Special Marriage Act, which is “one of the earliest attempts towards Uniform Civil Code,” in which it is permissible. Body: The Special Marriage Act of 1954: The SMA is a statute that allows marriages to be pronounced without the participation of any religious rites or customs. Marriages between people of different social groups, faiths, or states are solemnised by registration under the

Q1. Do you believe the time has come for Parliament to reconsider entrusting disqualification petitions under the Anti-Defection Act to the Speaker? Examine in the context of recent events. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS II à Parliament and State legislatures—structure, functioning, conduct of business, powers & privileges and issues arising out of these. Model Answer: Introduction: Defection is defined as “a member of a political party abandoning his or her commitment to that party” or, more simply, “when an elected representative joins another party without resigning from his or her current party in exchange for rewards.” Defection is the institutional malaise, and switching parties is state-neutral, party-neutral, and politics-neutral. The Anti-Defection Law was enacted in 1985 as part of the 52nd Amendment to the Indian Constitution, which added the Tenth Schedule. The law’s principal goal was to counteract “the evil of political defections,” which could occur as a result of a payment for office or other comparable factors. Both Parliament and state legislatures are subject to the statute. However, there are a number of concerns with how this law operates. Body: Some sitting MLAs in the Manipur administration recently switched to the opposition, causing political uncertainty in the state. This defection politics in Manipur is not unusual; defections have also occurred recently in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. Background: Political defections by members of the legislature have influenced the Indian political system for a long time. The political system became more unstable and chaotic as a result of this predicament. In 1985, the 52nd constitution amendment act on anti-defection was passed, and the 10th Schedule was inserted to the Indian Constitution to combat the evil of political defections. The 91st Constitution Amendment Act of 2003 was adopted with the goal of reducing the size of the Council of Ministers, prohibiting defectors from holding public office, and strengthening anti-defection legislation. Current Anti-defection legislation has the following flaws: Anti-defection legislation has failed to prevent “horse trading” and defection, resulting in the overthrow of governments due to the machinations of corrupt legislators. For example, in Karnataka, 17 members of the coalition government resigned, resulting in a government change. Later, the 17 MLAs ran for the party that established the new administration. Individual defections are prohibited by law, but bulk defections are not. For example, the Congress administration in Madhya Pradesh lost its majority due to MLA resignations. Against the genuine spirit of representative democracy: The anti-defection law aims to maintain government stability by preventing legislators from switching sides. This statute, however, prohibits legislators from voting in accordance with their conscience, judgment, and the interests of their constituents. Impairs legislative supervision of government: The anti-defection statute obstructs the legislature’s oversight duty over the government by guaranteeing that members vote based on party leadership decisions. In other words, if parliamentarians are unable to vote on legislation independently, they will be unable to serve as an effective check on the administration. In effect, the Anti-Defection Law weakens the separation of powers between the Executive and the Legislature, concentrating power in the hands of the executives. The presiding officer of the House has the authority to disqualify parliamentarians on the basis of defection by the Presiding Officer of a legislature in response to a petition from any other member of the House. However, there are other cases in which presiding officials serve the entrenched interests of a ruling political party or government. Furthermore, the statute makes no provision for the Presiding Officer to make a decision on a disqualification plea within a specific time frame. As a result, the ruling is sometimes reliant on the presiding officer’s whims and fancies. Has an impact on debate and discussion: In India, the Anti-Defection Law has created a democracy based on parties and numbers rather than debate and discussion. It makes no distinction between dissent and defection in this way, weakening Parliamentary debates on any measure. Speaker’s Authority ruling by the Supreme Court: The Supreme Court’s recent judgment on the Speaker as the adjudicating authority under the anti-defection law has two major implications. The first is that Parliament should appoint a “permanent tribunal” or external mechanism to make speedy and impartial verdicts on defection cases in place of the Speaker. Few would argue with the Court’s assessment that initial concerns and misgivings regarding Speakers’ impartiality had been realized. The second is its remarkable finding that a major question referred to a Constitution Bench by another Bench in 2016 was superfluous. The question before a bigger Bench is whether courts have the authority to order Speakers to decide disqualification petitions within a set time frame. The issue arose because numerous presiding officers have permitted defectors to increase the strength of ruling parties and even be sworn in as Ministers simply by refusing to hear accusations against them. Defections in large numbers have occurred in some states shortly after elections. Speakers have been intentionally breaking the law, believing that no court would question the delay in disposing of disqualification cases as long as the matter was ongoing before a Constitution Bench. This has aided the ruling party, which is generally the one that helped them get to the Chair. It is past time for Parliament to reconsider whether disqualification petitions should be entrusted to a Speaker as a quasi-judicial authority while the Speaker remains a de jure or de facto member of a political party. Restriction on the Speaker’s discretion: According to a recent Supreme Court ruling, the Speaker must make a decision on disqualification within three months of receiving the application. It cannot be the Speaker’s decision to take no action. Steps to take: The Speaker’s decision to exclude a legislator is based on the Speaker’s institution. In many states, the Speaker’s partisan position has ensured that turncoat politicians remain genuine members of the House. Various commissions, including the National Commission to Review the Workings of the Constitution (NCRWC), have recommended that, on the advice of the Election Commission, the President (in the case of MPs) or

Q1. What do you understand by Vaccine hesitancy? discuss the consequences of it and also suggest some communication strategy to resolve this issue. (250 words) Paper & Topic: GS II à Health & related Issues Model Answer: Introduction: Vaccine hesitancy is defined by the World Health Organization as a delay in accepting or refusing vaccines notwithstanding the availability of immunisation services. Vaccine apprehension has been recorded in more than 90 percent of the world’s countries. Body: Vaccine Hesitancy Illustrations: In 2019, approximately 4, 24,000 children worldwide have been diagnosed with measles, compared to 1, 73,000 in 2018. In the early 2000s, underprivileged populations in Uttar Pradesh were reported to have taken five times the recommended dose of oral polio vaccine. Vaccine Reluctance for a Variety of Reasons: Religious propaganda claiming that the vaccination may contain microorganisms, chemicals, or animal-derived items, all of which are prohibited under religious law. The basis of vaccine hesitancy all across the world is the use of social media to instil fear in people by wrongly blaming vaccines for unrelated diseases. In India, for example, some people are refusing to get the polio vaccine. This is because it is widely believed that the polio vaccine causes disease, infertility, and is useless. Diseases caused by vaccines: Oral Polio Vaccines (OPV) contain attenuated but live poliovirus. Immunized youngsters excrete the vaccination virus, which can spread from one person to another. This permits the virus to persist and mutate into a more virulent form, increasing the risk of poliovirus acquired from vaccines (VDPV). Inconvenient vaccination access is another major factor in vaccine apprehension. Steps that can be made in India to overcome vaccination apprehension include: Vaccination as the default approach: Some governments have imposed restrictions on families that refuse to get vaccinated. For example, in France, 11 immunizations are required for children, and unvaccinated youngsters are not permitted to attend nurseries or schools. In Australia, parents who do not vaccinate their children are not eligible for the universal Family Allowance welfare payments. Establishing trust: Vaccine manufacturers can provide up-to-date information on adverse effects as well as assurances regarding a reliable vaccine safety system. They can also include vaccination-related FAQs, such as answers to concerns about vaccine benefits, safety, and immunologic effects, as well as links to a variety of internet resources for doctors and parents. Digital Algorithms: Users can request that Google, Facebook, and other similar platforms only provide them reliable, science-based material regarding vaccines. Misinformation must be addressed: According to a 2018 study, inadequate awareness was the primary reason for 45 percent of youngsters missing various immunizations in 121 Indian districts with high un-immunization rates. While 24 percent of people did not get inoculated because they were afraid of side effects, 11 percent were hesitant to get immunised for reasons other than fear of side effects. A powerful person or celebrities should come up to debunk the beliefs that lead to vaccine apprehension. STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNICATION: Use of persuasion – through role model advertising, Mass awareness generation Using credible and expert sources to raise awareness; using incentives to increase vaccination campaigns. Conclusion: Vaccine apprehension jeopardises decades of progress in decreasing the burden of infectious diseases that have afflicted humanity for generations. Myths and disinformation about vaccination will be addressed through a coordinated effort between paediatricians, family doctors, parents, public health officials, governments, the technology industry, and civil society. Q2. Explain in what ways behavioral sciences can be used in prevention and management of COVID-19. (250 words)   Paper & Topic: GS II à Health & related Issues Model Answer: Introduction: It is now widely accepted that huge groups of people act as super-spreaders for the fatal coronavirus. Despite this, there have been numerous mass meetings in recent years due to religious and political concerns. For example, there was footage of ladies performing Jalabhishek at Navapura village in Gujarat’s Sanand during a kalash yatra. In addition, under police protection, the Mahakumbh was held in Haridwar, when millions of people took a holy dip in the Ganga. Daily new infections are caused by a lack of physical separation and sufficient hand washing. The most important cause for the increase is that people are wearing masks inappropriately, or not at all. According to data from the Johns Hopkins Center for Communication Programs’ global study of COVID-19 knowledge, attitudes, and practises (KAP), India saw a 5% decrease in mask use from July 2020 to March 2021. In this context, because the Covid-19 issue necessitates large-scale behaviour modification and places enormous psychological pressures on individuals, social and behavioural sciences insights to the pandemic response are useful. Body: Pandemic Behavioural Dimensions: Threat: Fear is one of the most common emotional responses during a pandemic. Humans, like other animals, have a variety of defence mechanisms for dealing with environmental hazards. Threat-related negative emotions can be contagious, and fear can make dangers seem more imminent. Optimism Bias: There is a widespread belief that unpleasant things happen to other people more often than they happen to you. While optimism bias might help people avoid negative emotions, it can also cause them to underestimate their chances of developing a disease and, as a result, to disregard public health warnings. Prejudice and Discrimination: People’s reactions to fear and threat affect not just how they think about themselves, but also how they feel about and react to others, particularly out-groups. Threats of sickness, for example, are frequently linked to higher degrees of ethnocentrism and intolerance toward out-groups. This can lead to a loss of empathy for persons who are socially isolated and an increase in dehumanisation. Disaster and ‘Panic’: It’s a popular assumption in popular culture that people panic when they’re in danger, especially when they’re in a crowd. That is, they act rashly and excessively for self-preservation, putting everyone’s survival in jeopardy. This concept has been used to explain how people have reacted to the current Covid-19 outbreak, most notably in reference to the concept of ‘panic buying.’ Social Norms: Social norms influence people’s behaviour by influencing what